Unit-II: Watershed Management- Agrobotany

Unit-II: Syllabus
Types of degraded and wastelands, Distribution and extent of watershed in India and Uttar Pradesh, factors responsible for land degradation, characteristics of different types of degraded and wastelands, Problems of degraded land in Uttar Pradesh. Appropriate techniques for management of different types of degraded and wastelands.

Types of Degraded and Wastelands

1. Introduction

Degraded and wastelands are lands that have lost their productive capacity due to natural or anthropogenic factors. These lands are often underutilized or left barren due to poor soil quality, water scarcity, or other environmental challenges. Understanding the types of degraded and wastelands is essential for formulating reclamation and management strategies.

2. Classification of Degraded and Wastelands

The classification is generally based on the nature of degradation, climatic conditions, topography, and the extent of deterioration. The following are major types:

A. Based on Cause of Degradation

• Water-Eroded Lands: Caused by runoff and soil erosion due to water. Includes lands with sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully erosion, and ravines.
• Wind-Eroded Lands: Found in arid and semi-arid regions. Characterized by sand dunes and shifting sand.
• Saline and Alkaline Soils: High concentration of soluble salts (saline) or exchangeable sodium (alkaline). Often result from improper irrigation practices.
• Waterlogged and Marshy Lands: Lands where the water table is near the surface or stagnant water is present. Common in poorly drained areas.
• Mining and Industrial Wastelands: Created due to mining activities and industrial effluents. Characterized by toxic soil, overburden dumps, and barren land.
• Shifting Cultivation Areas: Areas under slash-and-burn agriculture. Land remains fallow and loses productivity.
• Degraded Forest Lands: Forests degraded due to overgrazing, logging, or encroachments. Reduced tree density and biodiversity.
• Barren Rocky or Stony Wastes: Includes exposed rocks, gravels, and steep slopes. Low soil depth and water holding capacity.
• Snow-Covered and Glacial Areas: Lands under perpetual snow or glaciers. Not suitable for cultivation.

B. Based on Agro-Ecological Regions

• Arid Wastelands: Low rainfall, high evapotranspiration. Includes desertic soils, saline patches.
• Semi-Arid Wastelands: Moderate rainfall with seasonal vegetation. Often subject to wind and water erosion.
• Humid/Sub-Humid Wastelands: High rainfall but poor land management. Waterlogging, deforestation, and nutrient leaching common.

3. Importance of Identifying Wasteland Types

• Helps in selecting suitable reclamation techniques.
• Aids in sustainable land use planning.
• Assists in policy formulation and prioritizing restoration efforts.

4. Conclusion

Understanding the various types of degraded and wastelands is a prerequisite for their effective management and reclamation. Classification based on cause and region helps in implementing appropriate soil and water conservation, afforestation, and land-use practices to restore productivity and ecological balance.

Distribution and Extent of Watershed in India and Uttar Pradesh

Introduction

Watersheds are essential hydrological units used for the planning and implementation of conservation and developmental activities in both rural and urban landscapes. Their role in managing natural resources sustainably—particularly soil, water, and vegetation—is critical for agricultural productivity, water availability, and ecological stability.

Watershed Distribution in India

India is divided into a complex network of watersheds, owing to its diverse topography and climatic variations. The Central Water Commission (CWC) has classified the Indian subcontinent into six major water resource regions, 20 river basins, and 325 sub-basins. The country’s landmass is further subdivided into around 35 major watersheds and more than 5,000 micro-watersheds.

• Himalayan Region: Includes watersheds of rivers such as the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus. These basins are perennial and have enormous hydrological significance.
• Peninsular Region: Major watersheds include the Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Narmada, and Mahanadi. These rivers are mostly rainfed and show seasonal variability.
• Western Region: Includes the desert and arid watersheds of Rajasthan and Gujarat, like the Luni River basin.
• Eastern Region: Covers parts of West Bengal, Odisha, and the Northeastern states with high rainfall and dense vegetation, contributing to rich watershed resources.

The total geographical area of India is approximately 328.72 million hectares, of which about 107 million hectares have been identified as degraded or in need of watershed development.

Extent of Watershed in India

According to various national surveys, India has immense scope for watershed development:

• Total Area: ~328.72 million hectares (Mha)
• Estimated Treatable Area under Watershed Projects: ~150 Mha
• Rainfed Agricultural Area: ~90 Mha, which is the primary focus of watershed programs
• Areas Already Treated: ~80-85 Mha under various schemes like IWMP, RVP, NWDPRA, etc.

Watershed Distribution in Uttar Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh, being a vast and agriculturally important state, has considerable watershed potential. Its terrain includes parts of the Himalayan foothills, the Indo-Gangetic plains, and Vindhyan plateau regions. As a result, the state has a varied hydrological profile.

• Major River Basins: Ganga, Yamuna, Gomti, Ghaghara, and Son rivers form the primary watersheds in the state.
• Geographical Area: ~24 million hectares (240 lakh ha)
• Estimated Degraded Area: ~9 million hectares, requiring treatment through watershed approaches
• Watershed Regions: Divided into Upper Ganga Basin, Middle Ganga Basin, and Vindhyan Region

In the hilly districts like Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, and parts of Chitrakoot, soil erosion and deforestation have made watershed management a crucial strategy. Similarly, in the central and western plains, waterlogging and salinity are issues that are being addressed through watershed programs.

Government Initiatives

The Government of India, along with the Government of Uttar Pradesh, has launched several programs for watershed development:

• IWMP (Integrated Watershed Management Programme): Merged into the PMKSY (Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana) for effective convergence.
• RVP (River Valley Projects): Target erosion-prone areas, especially in upper catchments.
• DPAP (Drought Prone Areas Programme): Focused on Bundelkhand and southern UP regions.

Conclusion

Watershed development is essential for improving water use efficiency, preventing soil degradation, and enhancing agricultural productivity. Given the vast area and diverse agro-ecological zones, India—and particularly Uttar Pradesh—holds significant potential for implementing and expanding watershed programs. Strategic, participatory planning and scientific resource management are key to harnessing the full potential of watersheds.

Factors Responsible for Land Degradation

Land degradation refers to the deterioration of the physical, chemical, and biological quality of the land, resulting in a significant reduction in its productivity and ability to support biodiversity, agriculture, and ecosystem services. This complex and widespread issue arises from a combination of natural processes and human interventions. It poses a serious and growing threat to food security, livelihoods, environmental health, and economic development globally. The major factors responsible for land degradation are discussed in detail below:

1. Deforestation

• The extensive removal of trees for fuelwood, timber, agriculture, and urban expansion leads to the loss of vegetative cover, which plays a vital role in stabilizing soil and maintaining moisture levels.
• Without tree roots to anchor the soil, the exposed surface becomes highly susceptible to erosion by wind and water.
• Deforestation also disrupts the local microclimate and reduces biodiversity, exacerbating the degradation of land.

2. Soil Erosion

• Soil erosion is a primary contributor to land degradation and occurs through the action of wind, water, and mechanical disturbances.
• Erosion removes the nutrient-rich topsoil, which is essential for plant growth, leading to reduced agricultural productivity.
• Human activities like poor land management, deforestation, and inadequate soil conservation practices accelerate erosion processes.

3. Overgrazing

• Allowing livestock to graze excessively in one area can lead to the depletion of vegetation cover.
• Trampling by animals compacts the soil, reduces its porosity, and hinders water infiltration, increasing the risk of runoff and erosion.
• Overgrazing diminishes soil fertility and affects the natural regeneration capacity of grasses and shrubs.

4. Unsustainable Agricultural Practices

• The continuous use of mono-cropping systems, intensive tillage, and high dependency on chemical fertilizers and pesticides disrupt soil health.
• Such practices degrade soil structure, reduce microbial activity, and lead to nutrient imbalances.
• Improper irrigation techniques cause salinization and waterlogging, making the land unsuitable for cultivation.

5. Urbanization and Industrialization

• Rapid and unplanned urban growth leads to the conversion of fertile agricultural land into residential and industrial zones.
• The construction of buildings and roads results in land sealing, which reduces water absorption and increases surface runoff.
• Industrial processes often produce hazardous waste and pollutants that contaminate the soil and surrounding ecosystems.

6. Mining Activities

• Mining, especially open-cast mining, significantly disturbs the land surface and natural vegetation.
• It creates large-scale barren areas, alters land contours, and generates waste material that pollutes nearby land and water bodies.
• Post-mining land is often left unrehabilitated, making it vulnerable to erosion and degradation.

7. Climate Change

• Climate variability and extreme weather events such as prolonged droughts, intense rainfall, and storms accelerate degradation processes.
• Rising temperatures lead to increased evaporation rates, loss of soil moisture, and desertification in arid and semi-arid regions.
• Changes in precipitation patterns disrupt traditional cropping cycles and further degrade land.

8. Water Mismanagement

• Inefficient use of water resources, including over-irrigation and poorly designed drainage systems, contributes to soil degradation.
• Excessive groundwater extraction lowers the water table, affecting soil moisture and plant growth.
• Irrigation with saline water or inadequate drainage leads to salinity and alkalinity problems, reducing soil productivity.

9. Population Pressure

• A rapidly growing population demands more land for housing, agriculture, and infrastructure.
• This leads to the encroachment on forests, wetlands, and marginal lands that are ecologically sensitive and often fragile.
• Overexploitation of land resources results in reduced vegetation cover, loss of biodiversity, and a decline in land health.

10. Lack of Awareness and Poor Governance

• In many regions, lack of awareness about sustainable land use practices leads to irresponsible behavior and misuse of land resources.
• Weak enforcement of environmental regulations, land tenure insecurity, and inadequate investment in land restoration programs contribute to ongoing degradation.

Conclusion

Land degradation is a multi-faceted and interlinked issue that involves environmental, economic, and social dimensions. Its impacts are far-reaching, affecting food security, water resources, climate resilience, and the livelihoods of millions of people. Effective solutions require a comprehensive approach that includes sustainable land management, afforestation and reforestation, soil and water conservation techniques, policy reforms, community participation, and investment in research and education. By adopting integrated and long-term strategies, it is possible to halt and reverse land degradation, thereby ensuring a healthy and productive landscape for future generations.

Characteristics of Different Types of Degraded and Wastelands

Degraded and wastelands are areas of land that have experienced a significant loss in their biological and economic productivity due to a combination of natural processes and human-induced activities. These lands are often unable to support agriculture, forestry, or even natural vegetation due to various physical, chemical, and biological limitations. They are categorized based on the specific form of degradation they have undergone. Understanding the characteristics of each type is essential for implementing appropriate reclamation, conservation, and land management strategies. Below is a detailed overview of the different types of degraded and wastelands and their defining features:

1. Salt-Affected Lands

• Characterized by the accumulation of soluble salts or exchangeable sodium in the soil profile, leading to saline or sodic conditions.
• The soil structure is often severely degraded, becoming compacted and crusted.
• These soils exhibit poor permeability, resulting in water stagnation and reduced aeration.
• High pH values (often above 8.5) inhibit nutrient availability and microbial activity.
• Vegetation is sparse, stunted, or completely absent due to osmotic stress, nutrient deficiencies, and toxicity from salts.
• These lands are common in arid and semi-arid regions with improper irrigation and lack of drainage facilities.

2. Waterlogged and Marshy Lands

• These lands are continuously or seasonally saturated with water, which adversely affects plant growth.
• Anaerobic conditions prevail, leading to poor root respiration and nutrient uptake.
• Native vegetation often includes hydrophytic species such as reeds, sedges, and grasses.
• Waterlogging may result from over-irrigation, leakage from canals, high groundwater tables, or inadequate drainage systems.
• Soil health deteriorates over time, and the land becomes unfit for most agricultural crops.

3. Gullied and Ravinous Lands

• Created by excessive surface runoff that removes topsoil and cuts deep channels into the land.
• These formations are often found along riverbanks and in undulating terrain with loose or fragile soils.
• The gullies and ravines expand over time, making the land increasingly unstable and dangerous.
• Soil fertility is extremely low, and natural vegetation struggles to re-establish.
• Reclamation is difficult and costly, often requiring mechanical, biological, and vegetative measures.

4. Shifting Cultivation Areas

• Also known as slash-and-burn or jhum cultivation, practiced mainly in tribal and hilly regions.
• Forests are cleared and burned to grow crops, which temporarily enriches the soil with nutrients.
• After 2-3 years, soil fertility declines rapidly, and the land is abandoned.
• This practice leads to deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and increased vulnerability to erosion.
• Over time, repeated cycles of cultivation and fallowing leave the land permanently degraded.

5. Mining and Industrial Wastelands

• Result from mining operations that strip away vegetation, topsoil, and subsoil, leaving behind heaps of overburden and pits.
• Industrial wastelands arise from disposal of toxic waste, chemicals, and effluents.
• These lands are often contaminated with heavy metals and other pollutants.
• Natural soil formation processes are disrupted, making plant establishment difficult.
• Restoration requires detoxification, soil amendment, and re-vegetation, which are resource-intensive processes.

6. Snow-Covered and Glacial Areas

• These are lands permanently or seasonally covered with snow and glaciers, mostly found in high mountainous regions.
• The surface remains frozen or covered in ice for most of the year, making it unsuitable for conventional land use.
• Soil development is minimal, and vegetation is sparse, limited to mosses and lichens.
• Accessibility is restricted due to harsh climatic conditions and terrain.

7. Desertic and Sandy Areas

• Composed mainly of loose sand with minimal organic matter and low moisture retention capacity.
• The climate is characterized by high temperatures, intense sunlight, and very low precipitation.
• Vegetation is sparse, consisting mostly of xerophytic plants adapted to arid conditions.
• These areas are prone to wind erosion, which can create shifting sand dunes and desertification.
• Water scarcity and salinity often compound the degradation.

8. Rocky and Steep Sloping Areas

• Consist of exposed bedrock, boulders, and very shallow soils.
• Slopes are steep, leading to rapid surface runoff and high erosion rates.
• Soil depth and moisture retention are poor, limiting vegetation growth.
• These lands are generally not suitable for cultivation and are often used for low-density forestry or grazing.
• Stabilization requires afforestation and terracing techniques.

9. Upland with Shallow Soil Depth

• These lands occur in elevated areas where soils are thin and rest on hard rock or compact subsoil layers.
• They are highly vulnerable to water and wind erosion due to lack of vegetative cover and slope.
• Soil fertility is low due to limited nutrient and moisture availability.
• These lands support only sparse grasses or shrubs and are often used for marginal grazing.
• Reclamation requires soil conservation measures such as contour bunding and agroforestry.

10. Jhum or Slash-and-Burn Lands

• A subcategory of shifting cultivation, commonly practiced in tropical hilly regions.
• Involves clearing and burning of forest patches to cultivate crops for a short duration.
• Once fertility declines, the land is left fallow for many years, but increasing population pressure reduces the fallow period.
• Repeated use without adequate recovery time leads to permanent degradation.
• The land becomes vulnerable to landslides, erosion, and invasive species.

Conclusion

Degraded and wastelands vary widely in their characteristics depending on the causes and environmental conditions. These lands not only represent lost economic potential but also pose ecological and social challenges. Effective management and reclamation of these lands involve detailed assessment, appropriate land-use planning, community involvement, and adoption of region-specific conservation techniques. Restoring these lands to productivity can greatly contribute to sustainable development, enhance biodiversity, and improve livelihoods in affected regions.

Problems of Degraded Land in Uttar Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh, a predominantly agrarian state, faces significant challenges due to the degradation of its land resources. The growing pressure on land caused by an increasing population, intensive agricultural practices, deforestation, and poor land management strategies has contributed to a steady decline in soil quality and productivity. This has direct consequences on agricultural output, food security, and rural livelihoods.

1. Soil Erosion

One of the most severe problems of degraded land in Uttar Pradesh is soil erosion, particularly in the hilly and undulating regions. Unscientific farming, deforestation, and overgrazing leave soil exposed to wind and water erosion. This leads to the loss of fertile topsoil, reduction in soil depth, and lower productivity. The Bundelkhand region is notably affected by water-induced erosion, further exacerbating drought-like conditions.

2. Waterlogging and Salinity

In many parts of the state, especially in canal-irrigated zones, improper irrigation practices and inadequate drainage lead to waterlogging. Over time, this causes salt accumulation in the root zone, resulting in soil salinization and alkalinity. Areas in western and central Uttar Pradesh are particularly affected, where vast tracts of land become unproductive due to salinity.

3. Nutrient Depletion

Intensive cropping without adequate replenishment of nutrients through organic or chemical fertilizers has led to nutrient imbalance and depletion. The overuse of chemical fertilizers like urea without balancing with phosphates, potash, or micronutrients accelerates the decline in soil fertility. This problem is widespread in fertile zones like the Indo-Gangetic plains.

4. Deforestation and Loss of Vegetation

Uncontrolled deforestation for fuel, fodder, and agriculture has resulted in large-scale land degradation, especially in forest fringe areas. Loss of vegetation cover leads to reduced soil binding capacity, enhancing vulnerability to erosion and moisture loss. This is common in districts with forested and hilly terrain such as Sonbhadra and Mirzapur.

5. Desertification in Certain Pockets

Though not traditionally associated with desert regions, some areas of Uttar Pradesh, particularly in the southwestern parts like Jhansi and Lalitpur, are witnessing signs of desertification. These include declining rainfall, frequent droughts, shifting sand dunes, and barren lands — all consequences of degraded land and changing climatic conditions.

6. Encroachment and Unscientific Land Use

Rapid urbanization and industrial development have led to the conversion of agricultural and forest land into non-agricultural uses. This unplanned expansion often depletes fertile lands and leaves behind degraded or polluted zones. Moreover, unsustainable mining activities in some districts have caused irreversible damage to landscapes and ecosystems.

7. Overgrazing by Livestock

The growing livestock population exerts pressure on common grazing lands. Overgrazing reduces plant biomass, compacts soil, and accelerates erosion. This is particularly evident in rural belts with a high dependence on livestock for livelihood, leading to further deterioration of land quality.

8. Impact on Socio-Economic Conditions

Degraded lands reduce crop productivity, increase input costs, and lead to frequent crop failures. This exacerbates rural poverty and compels migration to urban areas. The socio-economic burden on farmers and the state’s economy becomes heavier with each passing year of inaction toward land restoration.

Conclusion

Addressing land degradation in Uttar Pradesh requires integrated management approaches including sustainable land use planning, afforestation, adoption of organic and balanced fertilization, and proper irrigation and drainage systems. Community participation, awareness, and strong policy support are essential to restore degraded lands and ensure long-term environmental and agricultural sustainability.

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Appropriate Techniques for Management of Different Types of Degraded and Wastelands

The sustainable management and effective reclamation of degraded and wastelands are crucial for restoring ecological balance, ensuring food security, and improving the livelihood of dependent populations. These efforts require the implementation of a range of site-specific, practical, and science-based techniques tailored to the nature of the land degradation. Below is a detailed account of various degraded land types along with appropriate management practices to rejuvenate their productivity and ecological functionality:

1. Salt-Affected Lands

• Application of gypsum or chemical amendments such as sulfur and calcium chloride to displace sodium ions and reclaim sodic soils.
• Extensive leaching of excess salts from the root zone using good quality irrigation water, particularly during pre-sowing irrigation.
• Adoption of salt-tolerant crop varieties like barley, mustard, rice, and cotton which can withstand high salinity.
• Plantation of salt-tolerant grasses and trees like Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica, and Casuarina to rehabilitate land.
• Establishing proper surface and subsurface drainage systems to prevent water stagnation and salt build-up.
• Organic amendments such as farmyard manure and green manure to improve microbial activity and soil structure.

2. Waterlogged and Marshy Lands

• Installation of both surface and subsurface drainage systems to reduce excess water from the root zone.
• Use of vertical drainage via borewells and pumps to lower the water table in extreme cases.
• Cultivation of water-tolerant crops like paddy, taro, water chestnut, and trees such as bamboo and eucalyptus.
• Promotion of integrated farming systems including aquaculture, duck rearing, and fodder crops.
• Periodic monitoring of groundwater levels and efficient water management practices.

3. Gullied and Ravinous Lands

• Engineering measures such as check dams, gabion structures, and gully plugs to arrest runoff and stabilize soil.
• Contour bunding, graded bunding, and trenching to intercept surface flow.
• Plantation of deep-rooted and soil-binding vegetation such as vetiver grass, Acacia catechu, and Leucaena leucocephala.
• Controlled grazing, fencing, and community-based protection measures to allow for natural regeneration.
• Conversion into silvipasture and horticulture-based systems in stable zones.

4. Shifting Cultivation Areas

• Promotion of permanent and semi-permanent agriculture systems using agroforestry, multi-tier cropping, and crop rotation.
• Rehabilitation of abandoned shifting lands with fast-growing native tree species and soil-conserving grasses.
• Education and capacity building of tribal communities on sustainable farming methods.
• Involvement of local governance in land-use planning and watershed development.

5. Mining and Industrial Wastelands

• Land reshaping and backfilling to restore topography and minimize hazards.
• Spreading topsoil and organic matter to enable root growth and microbial colonization.
• Phytoremediation using tolerant plant species to absorb or neutralize toxic contaminants.
• Revegetation with hardy, pollution-tolerant species like Jatropha, Pongamia, and grasses like Vetiveria.
• Treatment and containment of hazardous wastes, proper effluent management, and air quality control measures.

6. Snow-Covered and Glacial Areas

• Preservation of ecological integrity through minimal human interference and scientific tourism practices.
• Use of remote sensing tools for monitoring glacial retreat and hydrological changes.
• Promotion of sustainable livelihoods such as eco-tourism, medicinal plant cultivation, and animal husbandry.
• Maintenance of watershed integrity through reforestation of adjoining valleys and slopes.

7. Desertic and Sandy Areas

• Stabilization of sand dunes using windbreaks, shelterbelts, and grass strips.
• Use of drip irrigation and sprinkler systems to minimize water wastage and enhance efficiency.
• Introduction of drought-resistant and desert-adapted plants like date palm, aloe vera, and cacti.
• Adoption of rainwater harvesting structures such as khadins and nadis.
• Soil organic matter enhancement through mulching and composting.

8. Rocky and Steep Sloping Areas

• Construction of terraces, stone bunds, and contour trenches to reduce runoff velocity and erosion.
• Afforestation with hardy, slope-adapted trees such as pine, oak, and local shrubs.
• Establishment of silvipasture systems combining trees and grasses to meet fodder needs.
• Encouraging horticulture plantations like apple, citrus, and plum in moderately sloping areas.

9. Upland with Shallow Soil Depth

• Cultivation of shallow-rooted and less nutrient-demanding crops such as millets and pulses.
• Extensive use of mulching to conserve soil moisture and prevent surface crusting.
• Organic farming practices and minimal tillage to avoid further degradation.
• Planting of native shrubs and grassland restoration for livestock grazing.

10. Jhum or Slash-and-Burn Lands

• Implementation of improved fallow systems using leguminous cover crops to restore soil fertility.
• Agroforestry and multi-purpose tree planting for fuel, fodder, and timber.
• Promotion of community-based forest management programs.
• Education on alternative livelihoods such as handicrafts, beekeeping, and eco-tourism.

Conclusion

The effective management of degraded and wastelands is not only a technical necessity but also a socio-economic imperative. A combination of scientific interventions, community involvement, policy support, and continuous monitoring ensures that land is restored to a productive state. Such integrated efforts lead to improved agricultural productivity, biodiversity conservation, and climate resilience.