Rainfed agriculture in India refers to cropping systems that depend on rainfall as the primary source of water for crop production. Although irrigation networks have expanded since independence, a substantial portion of India’s cultivated area still relies entirely on monsoon rains. Out of approximately 143 million hectares of net sown area, roughly 85 million hectares (around 60%) are rainfed. These lands are distributed across a wide climatic gradient—from arid deserts in western India to humid uplands in the east—and therefore support a large variety of cropping systems and livelihood strategies.
Rainfed systems are characterized by high temporal variability of rainfall (both inter-annual and intra-seasonal), occasional extremes (droughts and floods), and frequently limited soil fertility. Because of these constraints, farmers in rainfed areas traditionally grow hardy, low-input crops (millets, pulses, oilseeds) or integrate cropping with livestock and agroforestry. In socio-economic terms, rainfed agriculture supports millions of small and marginal farmers, tribal communities, and pastoralists and thus is central to rural livelihoods and food security.
Types of Rainfed Farming
1. Dryland Farming
Dryland farming generally refers to areas receiving approximately 500–750 mm annual rainfall. These zones experience frequent moisture stress during the crop season. Moisture conservation (in situ and ex situ), selection of drought-tolerant crops and varieties, and low-input resilient cropping systems are the cornerstones of dryland farming. Major crops include sorghum, pearl millet, pigeon pea, groundnut, and sesame. Typical regions are the Deccan Plateau, parts of central India, Bundelkhand, and southern peninsular tracts.
2. Dry Farming / Arid Agriculture
This subset of dryland agriculture is practiced where rainfall is below 500 mm annually. Soils are often sandy, and evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, producing drought-like conditions in many years. Farming here is extremely risky and often combined with animal husbandry, drought-resistant trees (Prosopis, Acacia), and pastoral movements. Western Rajasthan and parts of Kutch (Gujarat) typify this category.
3. Rainfed Farming in Humid and Sub-humid Zones
Regions receiving over 750 mm of rainfall per year fall under humid and sub-humid rainfed farming. Though water is more available, uneven distribution, runoff, and occasional waterlogging or flash floods pose challenges. These regions can support higher-yielding and more water-demanding crops such as rice, maize, soybean, and cotton. Eastern India, the northeastern plains, and coastal uplands are prominent examples.
Difference Between Dryland Farming and Rainfed Farming
| Aspect | Dryland Farming | Rainfed Farming (Humid/Sub-humid) |
|---|---|---|
| Annual Rainfall | < 750 mm (often <500 mm in arid zones) | > 750 mm (but variable) |
| Soil moisture | Very limited; dependent on conservation measures | Relatively higher; risk from uneven distribution |
| Major crops | Millets, pulses, oilseeds, drought-tolerant fodder | Rice, maize, soybean, cotton, pulses |
| Risk | High (frequent droughts) | Moderate (variability, floods) |
| Farm systems | Low input, mixed cropping, livestock integrated | Possibility for higher inputs, mixed cereals and cash crops |
| Management focus | Soil moisture conservation, water harvesting | Rainwater management, drainage, erosion control |
Importance of Rainfed Farming
Rainfed agriculture is essential for India’s agrarian economy and rural society. Its importance spans several dimensions:
- Coverage and livelihoods: Roughly 60% of cultivated area is rainfed, supporting millions of farmers and landless laborers.
- Food and nutrition security: Rainfed lands produce a large share of the country’s coarse cereals, pulses and oilseeds, which are nutritionally important and culturally significant in many regions.
- Pulses and oilseeds production: An estimated 70–80% of pulses and oilseeds are produced in rainfed areas, contributing to protein and edible oil availability nationwide.
- Livestock and fodder: Rainfed zones supply a major portion of fodder and crop residues, sustaining India’s livestock, which are tightly coupled to household incomes.
- Agro-biodiversity: Traditional varieties and crop mixtures persist in rainfed systems, preserving genetic resources that are valuable for breeding climate-resilient crops.
- Sustainability and resilience: Low external input systems are often more resilient to certain climate risks and help conserve soil and water if managed well.
Area and Distribution of Rainfed Agriculture
Quantitatively, India’s rainfed area is large and heterogeneous. Some key facts and regional patterns:
Extent: ~85 million hectares of net sown area (about 60% of the cultivated land) are classified as rainfed.
Contribution to production (approx.): 44% of food grains; 80% of pulses; 70% of oilseeds; 60% of cotton; 85% of coarse cereals originate from rainfed areas.
Regional distribution (by agro-climatic character)
- Arid regions (Rainfall < 500 mm): Western Rajasthan, parts of Gujarat — focused on pearl millet, cluster bean, moth bean.
- Semi-arid regions (500–750 mm): Large tracts in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana — dominated by pulses, oilseeds, cotton.
- Humid/sub-humid regions (> 750 mm): Eastern India (Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh), parts of Assam, and coastal uplands — rice, maize, groundnut.
Major Historical Events and Policy Milestones for Rainfed Agriculture in India
Pre-Independence and Early Post-Independence Era
Before India’s independence in 1947, most agriculture across the subcontinent was rain-dependent, with local adaptations such as mixed cropping, shifting cultivation in uplands, and pastoral systems. Large-scale irrigation projects were limited. After independence, policy emphasis shifted toward increasing foodgrain production through irrigation and the Green Revolution (1960s–70s), which largely benefited irrigated regions and high-potential plains.
1970s – Dryland Research and Institutional Responses
Recognizing the differential performance of rainfed lands, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) initiated the All India Coordinated Research Project on Dryland Agriculture (AICRPDA) around 1970. This program gave sustained attention to research on moisture conservation, drought-tolerant crops, soil management, and appropriate cropping systems tailored to dryland conditions.
1980s – Watershed and Integrated Approaches
The 1980s saw an integrated policy response: the government launched watershed development programs aimed at soil and water conservation, recharge of groundwater, and sustainable land use. A flagship program in this era was the National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) initiated in 1984–85. The program prioritized participatory approaches, bunding, contour trenches, check dams, and community-managed resource use.
1990s – Institutional Reforms and Focused Programs
The National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA) was established (as part of later institutional discussions) to coordinate research, extension and planning for rainfed areas. The 1990s also emphasized decentralization, people’s participation, and diversification of livelihoods by introducing horticulture, agroforestry, and livestock interventions in rainfed landscapes.
2000s – Food Security, Pulses, and Climate Concerns
The National Food Security Mission (2007) and allied programs targeted pulse and oilseed production in rainfed districts to reduce import dependence and improve nutrition. During the same period, climate variability concerns led to investments in drought-tolerant varieties, improved weather forecasting, and crop insurance mechanisms for risk mitigation.
2010s–2025 – Integrated Missions and Farmer-Inclusive Models
Recent policy initiatives such as the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) and the National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) have emphasized integrated water management ("More Crop Per Drop"), micro-irrigation, watershed-based planning, and the promotion of climate-resilient cropping systems. Programs aiming at doubling farmers’ income have increasingly targeted rainfed districts through allied enterprises, value chain development and improved market linkages.
