1. Introduction to Structural and Functional Grammar
Structural grammar examines how words and phrases are organized to create meaning, focusing on the arrangement and relationship of linguistic elements. Functional grammar, meanwhile, explores how these structures serve specific communicative purposes. Together, they provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how language works at the sentence level.
2. Sentence Structure
2.1 Basic Sentence Patterns
English sentences follow predictable patterns based on the relationship between subjects, verbs, and complements. The five fundamental sentence patterns are:
| Pattern | Structure | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Pattern 1 | Subject + Verb (S-V) | Birds fly. |
| Pattern 2 | Subject + Verb + Object (S-V-O) | She reads books. |
| Pattern 3 | Subject + Verb + Complement (S-V-C) | The soup tastes delicious. |
| Pattern 4 | Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (S-V-IO-DO) | He gave her a gift. |
| Pattern 5 | Subject + Verb + Object + Complement (S-V-O-C) | They elected him president. |
2.2 Sentence Types by Structure
Simple Sentences contain one independent clause with a subject and predicate.
Compound Sentences join two or more independent clauses using coordinating conjunctions or semicolons.
Complex Sentences combine an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses.
Compound-Complex Sentences contain at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
3. Modifiers
3.1 Adjectives and Adjectival Modifiers
Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns, providing descriptive information about qualities, quantities, or characteristics. They typically answer questions like "which one?", "what kind?", or "how many?"
3.2 Adverbs and Adverbial Modifiers
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, typically answering "how?", "when?", "where?", "why?", or "to what extent?"
3.3 Modifier Placement and Clarity
Proper placement of modifiers is crucial to avoid ambiguity. Misplaced modifiers can create confusion or unintended meanings.
Clear: She spent nearly all her money.
4. Connecting Words
4.1 Coordinating Conjunctions
The seven coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) connect elements of equal grammatical rank.
4.2 Subordinating Conjunctions
These conjunctions introduce dependent clauses and establish relationships such as time, cause, condition, or contrast.
| Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| Time | when, while, after, before, until, since |
| Cause/Reason | because, since, as |
| Condition | if, unless, provided that |
| Contrast | although, though, whereas, while |
4.3 Correlative Conjunctions
These paired conjunctions work together to connect balanced elements: either...or, neither...nor, both...and, not only...but also.
4.4 Conjunctive Adverbs
These transitional expressions connect independent clauses and show relationships between ideas: however, therefore, moreover, consequently, nevertheless.
5. Verbals
5.1 Infinitives
An infinitive consists of "to" plus the base form of a verb. Infinitives can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
Adjective: She has work to complete.
Adverb: He studies hard to succeed.
5.2 Participles
Participles are verb forms that function as adjectives. Present participles end in -ing, while past participles typically end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n.
The broken window needs repair. (past participle)
5.3 Gerunds
Gerunds are verb forms ending in -ing that function as nouns. They can serve as subjects, objects, or complements.
She enjoys reading. (object)
Her passion is teaching. (complement)
6. Phrases
6.1 Noun Phrases
A noun phrase consists of a noun and its modifiers, functioning as a single unit within a sentence.
6.2 Verb Phrases
Verb phrases include a main verb and its auxiliary verbs, expressing tense, mood, or voice.
6.3 Prepositional Phrases
These phrases begin with a preposition and end with a noun or pronoun (the object of the preposition). They function as adjectives or adverbs.
We arrived in the morning. (adverb phrase)
6.4 Participial Phrases
Beginning with a present or past participle, these phrases function as adjectives.
6.5 Gerund Phrases
These phrases begin with a gerund and include any modifiers or objects, functioning as nouns.
6.6 Infinitive Phrases
Starting with an infinitive, these phrases can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
6.7 Appositive Phrases
These phrases rename or explain a noun, typically set off by commas.
7. Clauses
7.1 Independent Clauses
An independent clause contains a subject and a predicate and expresses a complete thought. It can stand alone as a sentence.
7.2 Dependent Clauses
Dependent clauses contain a subject and verb but cannot stand alone. They rely on independent clauses for complete meaning.
7.2.1 Adjective Clauses (Relative Clauses)
These clauses modify nouns or pronouns and typically begin with relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that).
7.2.2 Adverb Clauses
These clauses modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, and begin with subordinating conjunctions.
7.2.3 Noun Clauses
Functioning as nouns, these clauses can serve as subjects, objects, or complements. They often begin with words like that, what, whatever, who, whom, whoever.
I understand that you're busy. (object)
7.3 Essential vs. Non-Essential Clauses
Essential clauses (restrictive) provide necessary information and are not set off by commas.
Non-essential clauses (non-restrictive) add extra information and are set off by commas.
8. Functional Applications
8.1 Emphasis and Focus
Sentence structure can be manipulated to emphasize specific elements through techniques like fronting, clefting, or passive voice.
Fronted: Never did I expect such kindness.
8.2 Cohesion and Flow
Effective use of connecting words, parallel structure, and varied sentence patterns creates cohesive, readable text.
8.3 Register and Formality
Structural choices reflect the formality level and purpose of communication. Complex sentences with subordination often characterize formal writing, while shorter, simpler structures dominate informal contexts.
9. Common Structural Issues
9.1 Sentence Fragments
Incomplete sentences lacking a subject, verb, or complete thought.
Complete: We stayed inside because it was raining.
9.2 Run-on Sentences
Two or more independent clauses improperly joined without appropriate punctuation or conjunctions.
Corrected: The sun set, and the sky turned orange.
9.3 Comma Splices
Two independent clauses joined only by a comma without a coordinating conjunction.
Corrected: She studied hard; therefore, she passed the test.
10. Conclusion
Mastery of structural and functional grammar enables writers and speakers to construct clear, effective communication. Understanding sentence patterns, modifiers, connecting words, verbals, phrases, and clauses provides the foundation for analyzing and producing sophisticated language. By recognizing how structure serves function, language users can make informed choices that enhance clarity, emphasis, and rhetorical impact in their communication.
