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Chapter List – Principles of Genetics
M.Sc. Genetics and Plant Breeding
As per the latest ICAR Deen Committee syllabus – 1st Edition 2026
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Fundamentals of Genetics and Mendelian Inheritance
- Beginning of genetics and early concepts of inheritance
- Mendel's laws of inheritance
- Discussion on Mendel's paper
- Chromosomal theory of inheritance
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Extensions of Mendelian Genetics
- Multiple alleles
- Gene interactions
- Sex determination and differentiation
- Sex linkage
- Sex-influenced and sex-limited traits
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Linkage, Recombination and Genetic Mapping
- Linkage: detection and estimation
- Recombination and crossing over
- Genetic mapping in eukaryotes
- Somatic cell genetics
- Extrachromosomal inheritance
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Population Genetics
- Mendelian population
- Random-mating population
- Gene and genotype frequencies
- Causes of changes in gene and genotype frequencies
- Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
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Genetic Material: Structure, Organization and Replication
- Nature and structure of genetic material
- DNA replication
- Organization of DNA in chromosomes
- Genetic code
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Gene Expression and Genetic Fine Structure
- Protein biosynthesis
- Genetic fine-structure analysis
- Allelic complementation
- Split genes and overlapping genes
- Pseudogenes and oncogenes
- Gene families and clusters
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Regulation of Gene Activity
- Regulation of gene activity in prokaryotes
- Regulation of gene activity in eukaryotes
- Molecular chaperones and gene expression
- RNA editing
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Mutation, DNA Repair and Mobile Genetic Elements
- Molecular mechanisms of mutation
- DNA repair mechanisms
- Mutation suppression
- Bacterial plasmids
- Insertion sequences (IS elements)
- Transposable elements (Tn elements)
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Gene Isolation, Cloning and Molecular Detection
- Gene isolation, synthesis and cloning
- Genomic and cDNA libraries
- PCR-based cloning
- Positional cloning
- Nucleic acid hybridization
- Immunochemical detection
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DNA Technology and Gene Regulation Tools
- DNA sequencing
- DNA restriction and modification
- Antisense RNA
- Ribozymes
- Micro-RNAs (miRNAs)
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Genomics, Proteomics and Metagenomics
- Genomics
- Proteomics
- Metagenomics
- Transgenic bacteria
- Bioethics
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Gene Silencing and Cytoplasmic Genetics
- Gene silencing
- Genetics of mitochondria
- Genetics of chloroplasts
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Eugenics, Epigenetics and Genetic Disorders
- Concepts of eugenics
- Epigenetics
- Genetic disorders
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Syllabus
Content: Beginning of genetics, early concepts of inheritance, Mendel’s laws; Discussion on Mendel’s paper, Chromosomal theory of inheritance; Multiple alleles, Gene interactions, Sex determination, differentiation and sex-linkage, Sex-influenced and sex-limited traits; Linkage-detection, estimation; Recombination and genetic mapping in eukaryotes, Somatic cell genetics, Extra chromosomal inheritance. Mendelian population, Random mating population, Frequencies of genes and genotypes, Causes of change: Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Nature, structure and replication of the genetic material; Organization of DNA in chromosomes, Genetic code; Protein biosynthesis, Genetic fine structure analysis, Allelic complementation, Split genes, overlapping genes, Pseudogenes, Oncogenes, Gene families and clusters; Regulation of gene activity in prokaryotes and eukaryotes; Molecular mechanisms of mutation, repair and suppression; Bacterial plasmids, insertion (IS) and transposable (Tn) elements; Molecular chaperones and gene expression, RNA editing. Gene isolation, synthesis and cloning, genomic and cDNA libraries, PCR based cloning, positional cloning; Nucleic acid hybridization and immunochemical detection; DNA sequencing; DNA restriction and modification, Anti-sense RNA and ribozymes; Micro-RNAs (miRNAs). Genomics and proteomics; metagenomics; Transgenic bacteria and bioethics; Gene silencing; genetics of mitochondria and chloroplasts. Concepts of Eugenics, Epigenetics, Genetic disorders.
Practical: Laboratory exercises in probability and chi-square; Demonstration of genetic principles using laboratory organisms; Chromosome mapping using three-point test cross; Tetrad analysis; Induction and detection of mutations through genetic tests; DNA extraction and PCR amplification; Electrophoresis: basic principles and running of amplified DNA; Extraction of proteins and isozymes; Use of Agrobacterium mediated method and Biolistic gun; Detection of transgenes in the exposed plant material; Visit to transgenic glasshouse and learning the practical considerations.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) – Principles of Genetics
1. What is genetics?
Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with heredity, variation, genes, and the transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
2. Who is known as the Father of Genetics?
Gregor Johann Mendel is known as the Father of Genetics because of his pioneering experiments on pea plants, which established the fundamental principles of inheritance.
3. What are Mendel's laws of inheritance?
Mendel's three principles are the law of dominance, the law of segregation, and the law of independent assortment. These explain the inheritance patterns of traits under appropriate genetic conditions.
4. What is the chromosomal theory of inheritance?
The chromosomal theory of inheritance states that genes are located on chromosomes and that chromosome behaviour during meiosis and fertilization explains the transmission of hereditary traits.
5. What is the difference between linkage and crossing over?
Linkage is the tendency of genes located on the same chromosome to be inherited together, whereas crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis, which can produce recombinant combinations.
6. What is genetic recombination?
Genetic recombination is the formation of new combinations of alleles through processes such as crossing over and independent assortment. It contributes to genetic variation in populations.
7. What is the Hardy-Weinberg principle?
The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele and genotype frequencies remain constant across generations in an ideal population under conditions including random mating, no mutation, no migration, no natural selection, and a sufficiently large population.
8. What is the genetic material of most organisms?
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic material of most organisms. It stores hereditary information and serves as a template for replication and RNA synthesis. Some viruses use RNA as their genetic material.
9. What is the difference between DNA and RNA?
DNA generally contains deoxyribose sugar, the bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine, and is usually double-stranded. RNA contains ribose sugar and uracil instead of thymine and is usually single-stranded.
10. What is the central dogma of molecular biology?
The central dogma describes the usual flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. DNA is transcribed into RNA, and messenger RNA is translated into a protein. Some biological systems also involve reverse transcription.
11. What is gene expression?
Gene expression is the process by which information encoded in a gene is used to produce a functional RNA or protein product. It generally involves transcription and, for protein-coding genes, translation.
12. What is a mutation?
A mutation is a heritable change in the nucleotide sequence of genetic material. Mutations may be spontaneous or induced and can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral depending on their effects and environment.
13. What is gene cloning?
Gene cloning is the process of producing multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence, commonly by inserting it into a suitable vector and propagating it in a host cell.
14. What is PCR in genetics?
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a molecular technique used to amplify a specific DNA region. It involves repeated cycles of denaturation, primer annealing, and extension by a DNA polymerase.
15. What is genomics?
Genomics is the large-scale study of an organism's complete genome, including its sequence, organization, function, and variation.
16. What is the difference between genomics and proteomics?
Genomics studies the complete genetic material of an organism, whereas proteomics studies the complete set of proteins expressed by a cell, tissue, or organism under particular conditions.
17. What is metagenomics?
Metagenomics is the study of genetic material collected directly from environmental or mixed microbial communities. It helps investigate microbial diversity and functional potential, including that of microorganisms that are difficult to culture.
18. What is gene silencing?
Gene silencing is the suppression or reduction of gene expression. It can occur at the transcriptional or post-transcriptional level and may involve DNA methylation, chromatin changes, or RNA interference.
19. What is cytoplasmic inheritance?
Cytoplasmic inheritance is the transmission of hereditary information through genetic material outside the nucleus, particularly mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA. It may produce inheritance patterns that differ from typical Mendelian inheritance.
20. What is the importance of genetics in agriculture?
Genetics is fundamental to crop improvement, plant breeding, hybrid development, disease resistance, stress tolerance, and conservation of genetic resources. It also supports molecular breeding, genomic selection, and the study of inheritance of economically important traits.
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Last Updated: August 2026
